Throughout history, amethyst has been engraved, sculpted, faceted, tumbled, and even eaten! (Not recommending that, though.) Once associated with royalty, this purple wonder was considered a high value gem due to its purity and beautiful color, even having, at one time, the same value as ruby and sapphire. Traces of its use in jewelry date back as early as 3000 BCE in ancient Egypt.

The Gemstone

Amethyst is the purple/violet variety of the quartz family. Its color ranges from pale lilac (called Rose de France in the market) to a deep saturated purple. It’s a 7 on the MOH’s hardness scale and is considered a gem with good tenacity and durability in general.

Its name comes from the Greek word amethystos meaning not drunken. The humorous name originates from what people believed to be one of its powers, i.e. that the stone could ward off intoxication! Interestingly, Greek legends associated amethyst with Dionysus, the god of wine and pleasure.

Its crystalline structure is rhombohedral, generally an elongated asymmetrical prism with twin pyramids on each side if unbroken in the rough. It can also be seen as a hexagonal prism or with hexagonal angular color zonings.

Amethyst is a gemstone with pleochroism, meaning that, depending on the viewing angle, the gem can display different hues/colors. In displaying two colors (dichroic), one hue can be more reddish, while the other can be more bluish.

The gem owes its stunning purple/violet-ish hues to trace amounts of iron and natural radiation within the Earth. Most of the citrines and prasiolites sold today are, in fact, heated amethyst. Whether this heating is natural or caused by man, the difference is generally indistinguishable. It doesn’t take a very high temperature, only about 470-750o Celsius is needed to change its color. And, if so desired, it can then get its purple color back with irradiation.

Ametrine a gemstone that is half citrine (yellow) and half amethyst (purple) and is the result of natural heating. Its color may fade over time with prolonged exposure to light and heat, causing it to be not as stable as we might think.

Amethyst can be found in large sizes and in plentiful quantities in many countries, namely, Brazil, Uruguay, Canada, Morocco, India, Mexico, Namibia, Siberia, Russia, and Sri Lanka. In Canada, the gem is sourced mainly in Thunder Bay, Ontario, but can be found in smaller quantities all over Canada.

The most desired qualities today are those gems with deep saturated purples in different hues. Siberian amethysts imbued with a deep purple color, with red and blue flashes, were among the most prized and expensive varieties. Alas, the Siberian stock ran out decades ago, making these gems so rare that the only ones to surface are from old stock.

A relatively new source of amethysts that showed up a few years ago in Tucson is Morocco. These gems have red hair-like inclusions of hematite, and hourglass-shaped color zonings. Moroccan amethysts are considered a breath of fresh air for those who want something a little more out of the ordinary for their birthstones.

Depending on its origins (Africa or Uruguay, for example) amethyst can have slightly different hues, i.e. a more purplish color or a more violet-ish color.

Imitations, Synthetics, and Confusion

Even though it’s considered a very affordable gem-stone in the jewelry market, amethyst has many impersonators. Glass and plastic are the most well-known. Some confusion also occurs with natural gemstones such as faceted purple fluorite, scapolite, spinel, sapphire, tanzanite, and iolite, to name just a few.

Lab-grown (synthetic) amethyst quartz is also widely used and is hard to differentiate from natural amethyst.

Synthetic quartz is used not only in jewelry but is an important part of everyday life. It is used to make lenses, prisms, timekeepers, UV windows, semiconductors, medical devices, tools for harnessing solar energy and detecting radiation, and in myriad aspects of scientific and aerospace research due to its piezoelectric properties.

While it might not be the bright amethyst we see in jewelry, it’s still impressive to see what can be done with quartz in general, not only the purple variety.

Differentiating synthetic amethyst from natural amethyst when it is cut (faceted or cabochon) is a complicated and costly task. Therefore, it is important to trust the supplier and their sources.

If the stone has a few inclusions, it may become easier for gemologists to differentiate it under the microscope. Otherwise, it’s almost impossible to discern. Inclusions are like a fingerprint.

Treatments and Care

There are few treatments used on amethyst since it’s an inexpensive gemstone, although, as stated above, it can be heated, irradiated, and dyed (rarely) to change its color.

Under artificial light, amethyst can appear darker than reality. Prolonged exposure to heat can also alter the color of the stone, so it’s unwise to solder or repair a piece of jewelry with the amethyst still set in it.

GIA suggests avoiding thermal shocks, as it can fracture and stress the gem. But ultrasonic and steamer procedures are generally safe, if we avoid high heat and then ice water right after. Important historical pieces are worth repairing with a lapidary artist, but smaller ones are often not worth the cost of repair.

February’s Birthstone

Not only is amethyst the birthstone for February, but it is also the gem of choice for the sixth wedding anniversary! It was officially added as February’s birthstone in 1912, when the American National Retail Jewelers Association (now known as Jewelers of America) created a standardized list of birthstones.

Before 1912, the assignment of gemstones to specific months varied widely by culture and region. Amethyst became the official choice for February likely due to its prominence and appreciation in history.

Amethyst jewelry is a popular gift for babies born in February as well as for women of any age to celebrate their birthdays.

Mining Amethyst

Brazil is the world’s leading source of mined amethyst and amethyst geodes. Some of the most significant deposits were found in Marabá and Pau d’Arco at the end of the 19th century.

Today, Minas Gerais is an important source of amethyst geodes, but the biggest production of the purple gem is in the state of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil. This area is especially known for both its gem-quality crystals and decorative geodes.

Each of these areas represents a distinct geological setting, which results in different mining techniques being used. A large portion of the amethyst from these areas is heat-treated to produce citrine.

Buyers typically purchase amethyst directly from tunnel owners and then cob the material—in other words, they remove unwanted matrix and damaged portions—either at the mining site or at another location to prepare the gem as rough.

In Rio Grande do Sul, the amethyst occurs in vugs or geodes, which are cavities lined with mineral crystals within basalt. Sometimes the amethyst completely fills the cavity; other times it simply lines the inner surface.

This helps the mine owners and dealers decide whether to keep their discovery as a geode specimen or whether to remove the crystals for cutting for the jewelry market. The crystal quality, color and shape also play a role in their decision.

Purple Glory

With its rich history, amethyst continues to captivate the jewelry world even after centuries of admiration. From its origins as a gem of royalty and spiritual significance to its modern role as a February birthstone, this quartz variety remains timeless. Its accessibility, durability, and unique qualities ensure that amethyst retains a special place in the hearts of gem enthusiasts, gemologists, and artisans alike.

Its ongoing appeal demonstrates that even in a world of ever-changing trends, classic gemstones like amethyst can still surprise and inspire. For those who seek elegance, history, and a touch of mysticism in their jewelry, amethyst remains a gemstone with a regal allure.

The post Amethyst’s Regal Allure appeared first on Incolor Magazine.

For generations, spinel was the unsung hero of royal treasures, mistaken for its more famous cousin, the ruby. But in recent decades, it has emerged from the shadows, reclaiming its rightful place among the world’s most captivating gemstones. To rediscover spinel is to rediscover the story of beauty overlooked—and of resilience rewarded.

A Royal Impostor, Revealed

History remembers spinel as both muse and mystery. In the jeweled histories of Asia and Europe, few stones have played such a dramatic double role—adored by monarchs, misidentified by gemologists.

The most famous example lies atop the British Imperial State Crown, the so-called Black Prince’s Ruby. This deep crimson gem, gifted to England’s Edward of Woodstock in the 14th century, is not a ruby at all, but a large, unheated red spinel—its glow undimmed by seven centuries of history. Likewise, the Timur Ruby, inscribed with the names of Mughal emperors and now housed in the British Museum, is another magnificent spinel of royal descent.

Centuries before modern gemology, ruby and spinel were indistinguishable by eye. Both were mined from the same gravel beds of Central and South Asia, their colors overlapping in fiery shades of red and pink. It was only in the 18th century, with the advent of crystallography, that scientists finally separated them by their atomic structure. By then, spinel had already left its mark—not just on crowns, but on history itself.

A Spectrum of Fire

If ruby evokes passion and sapphire represents serenity, spinel embodies joy. The gem is unconfined, luminous, and endlessly diverse. It is one of the few gemstones that appears in nearly every hue that Nature can create.

The reds and pinks, long celebrated from Burma’s storied Mogok Valley, range from delicate rose to vivid crimson. The lavender and lilac tones of Sri Lanka whisper elegance, while the cobalt blues of Vietnam’s Luc Yên region possess a brilliance that rivals fine sapphire. In recent years, the electric Jedi Spinels from Tanzania’s Mahenge—stones so vibrant they seem lit from within—have captivated collectors and designers alike.

Gemologically speaking, spinel’s beauty is rooted in its purity. It is almost always untreated, a rarity in today’s gemstone market. Its natural fluorescence gives certain colors—especially the hot pinks and reds—a glow that feels almost supernatural under sunlight. Spinel may have been misunderstood, but it has never been modest.

The Mines and Their Magic

Each spinel deposit tells a story, a narrative not just of geology, but of people and place.

In Myanmar, miners still search the gravels of Mogok, where legends say that rubies and spinels were once guarded by mythical serpents. The spinels from this fabled valley are pure and vivid, often with a silky, glowing warmth that seems to radiate from beneath the surface.

Sri Lanka, known as the Island of Gems, offers a softer palette—pastel pinks, lilacs, and grays that carry a sense of refinement. Here, traditional river mining continues as it has for centuries, with families passing down both skill and reverence for the Earth.

Tanzania’s Mahenge gave the world something entirely new in 2007: a neon-pink spinel of extraordinary brightness. Dealers called them Jedi Spinels for their vivid, uncorrupted color—a playful term that has since entered the gemological vocabulary.

And in Vietnam’s Luc Yên and Madagascar’s remote deposits, a new generation of miners and gem cutters are adding colorful new chapters to spinel’s story, including blues and grays, proving that Nature’s palette is still far from exhausted.

The Modern Renaissance

In the last decade, spinel has undergone a transformation worthy of its mythic past. Once relegated to the margins of gem collections, it has now become one of the most sought-after colored stones among connoisseurs.

Several forces have driven this renaissance. First, the market’s growing appreciation for untreated, natural gemstones—those whose beauty comes directly from the Earth—has given spinel a distinct advantage.

Second, its remarkable color range and Mohs hardness of 8 offer jewelers creative freedom: from fiery reds that recall Burmese rubies to vibrant blues to cool grays that echo moonlight.

At international trade shows, from Hong Kong to Tucson, one can feel the shift in perception. Collectors, who once asked for sapphires, now pause at the sight of a vivid Mahenge pink. Designers seek out spinel for bespoke creations, drawn to its clarity and unpretentious elegance.

There is also an emotional aspect. Spinel feels authentic. It is a gem without pretense. In a market crowded with enhancements and marketing-driven prestige, its honesty resonates with a new generation of buyers who value transparency and individuality.

Why Spinel Matters Today

Collectors fall in love with spinel not because of its fame, but because of its feeling. There is something inherently joyful about holding a gem that glows without help, that doesn’t need enhancement to shine, that connects Nature’s wonder with human artistry.

Spinel also carries a quiet symbolism. Its resilience mirrors the human spirit—enduring centuries of mistaken identity, only to reemerge stronger and more admired. It teaches us that legacy is not defined by recognition, but by integrity.

As the world of fine gemstones continues to evolve, spinel stands as a bridge between past and present, between the royal treasures of Asia’s empires and the modern atelier’s bench. Its story is not just about mineralogy or market trends; it is about rediscovery, patience, and the enduring allure of truth revealed.

A Legacy Reborn

To understand spinel is to understand the evolution of connoisseurship itself. What was once considered “lesser” is now revered for precisely the qualities that make it unique: its purity, its character, its refusal to conform.

In a way, the rediscovery of spinel mirrors the journey of fine jewelry today—away from uniformity, toward individuality; away from status, toward substance. It is no coincidence that some of the most discerning collectors are now turning to spinel as the ultimate expression of understated luxury.

Every era has its gemstone muse. For ours—an age that values authenticity, story, and soul—spinel feels perfectly timed. It is the gemstone of revival: ancient in lineage, modern in spirit, and radiant in every sense of the word.

The post Rediscovering Spinel: A Legacy Reborn appeared first on Incolor Magazine.

As the demand for precious corals continues to grow, particularly in markets like Asia, so too do conservation concerns for precious corals. Since 2008 (at the request of China), imports and exports of several precious coral species, including Corallium elatius, Pleurocorallium japonicum, Pleurocorallium konojoi, and Pleurocorallium secundum, require CITES Appendix-III documentation.

Appendix III coverage is applied at the request of a specific country (in this case, China). Significantly, Corallium rubrum, the Mediterranean coral which is the oldest and most commonly known variety of coral used in jewelry, is the only major precious coral species not covered by CITES.

In 2015, CIBJO (the World Jewellery Confederation) established a coral com-mission and released the first coral Blue Book covering the terminology and education on precious corals.

These precious corals embody a millennial tradition. Often fished at great depths, there are many scientific secrets still to be unravelled about them.

With the current advancements in genetic techniques and gemological testing, it now seems a good time to examine the progress being made by science to accurately identify these precious gems.

The Biology of Precious Coral

Corals are formed by compact colonies of many individual polyps. These polyps secrete calcium carbonate to create a hard skeletal structure that offers them shelter and structure. The material utilized in jewelry is, in fact, the hard coral skeleton itself. Similarly to pearls, precious coral is thus a product of biomineralization. Unlike reef corals that live in shallow depths, precious corals are found in much greater depths (generally 50-1500m) in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the Pacific.

While Corallium rubrum (Mediterranean red coral) was historically found at shallower depths, overfishing in recent centuries has led to a reduction in these shallow populations.

Efforts to protect these remaining communities have been incorporated into recent GFCM (General Fisheries Com-mission for the Mediterranean) rules, which now prohibit coral harvesting at depths of less than 50 meters.

The deep-sea environment of most precious corals dictates an extremely slow rate of growth for these species. Due to this exceptionally slow growth, it is challenging to cultivate precious corals in a way that is commercially feasible.

Species and the Spectrum of Trade

Of the thousands of coral species existing in the ocean, only a very small number can and have been used in jewelry. These are the ones called precious corals and varieties include red, pink, orange, and white types, all belonging to the family Coralliidae.

The main species found in the jewelry trade, alongside their distribution and traditional market names, demonstrate the complex taxonomy of these gems.

The Importance of Regulations and CITES

Protecting precious coral species involves two primary levels of regulation. The first involves regulating fishing practices within the source regions, including the Mediterranean, Japan, Taiwan, and China.

The second level is regulation at the trading stage through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which entered into force in 1975 to address concerns that global trade was endangering numerous species.

Because only certain species are listed by CITES, it is imperative that species are identified correctly. This has traditionally been done on a visual basis by dealers and customs agents, but visual identification has its limitations.

Because many precious coral species share very similar characteristics and colors, traditional gemological techniques often fail to tell them apart. However, by reading their genetic fingerprints, it is possible to identify different species unambiguously. This allows for greater transparency and enables the further documentation of the provenance of both historic and modern precious coral jewels.

DNA Testing: A New Era of Identification

A significant step forward in coral species identification occurred in May 2020 with the publication of a study in the journal Scientific Reports. The paper, entitled “DNA fingerprinting: an effective tool for taxonomic identification of precious corals in jewellery,” detailed a methodology to conclusively identify a precious coral species.

This 2020 research marked the first major scientific study to describe a technique capable of using minute amounts of DNA recovered from precious coral used in jewelry to accurately identify the species. Crucially, the technique is considered quasi non-destructive and requires significantly less sample material than other analytical methods, with testable DNA successfully recovered from as little as 2.3 milligrams (0.0115 carats) of material.

One of the main findings was the discovery of a new species, Pleurocorallium niveum (originating in the Pacific), which had never previously been reported in the jewelry industry but was identified in several submitted coral cabochons. This finding underscored that there is still much to learn scientifically about precious corals.

In 2022, another study (published in Forensic Science International: Genetics) presented the Coral-ID method that was tested on a real-world set of samples, comprised of 20 coral-set items seized between 2009 and 2017 by the Swiss customs authorities, because they lacked valid CITES documentation.

Three of the 20 tested samples were shown to be from species that have not previously been associated with precious coral in the jewelry trade. This further underscored the need for additional scientific research.

This led to the latest research published earlier this year in two peer-reviewed journals—one in Coral Reefs and one in Diversity. The Coral Reefs study ad-dressed existing taxonomic uncertainties, specifically regarding the CITES-listed species Pleurocorallium secundum. We revisited the 1840s holotype of this species (a holotype is the official “reference specimen” for a species), which is housed at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington D.C.. By employing low-copy DNA analysis, the study provided genetic transparency and confirmed that the
original and subsequently identified specimens are indeed the same species.

The second paper, published in Diversity, focused on a rare angel’s skin (see image above) necklace that was submitted to the SSEF lab. Angel’s skin precious coral material is highly valued for its delicate light-pink hue and can command top-market prices.

DNA fingerprinting conclusively demonstrated that the material did not match either of the two species that might have been visually assumed to match with this type of material (Pleurocorallium elatius or Pleurocorallium secundum).

Instead, the material matched a newly identified precious coral species hitherto unknown both in the precious coral trade and to gemmologists. It was identified as belonging to the Pleurocorallium norfolkicum species complex. The material matched colony fragments that have been traced to Vietnam.

Implications for the Trade

The discovery has some practical implications for the precious coral trade, particularly concerning regulation. The described angel’s skin coral necklace analyzed had initially been considered as being CITES listed because it was presumed to be Pleurocorallium elatius.

However, since the material was identified as the Pleurocorallium norfolkicum species complex, and a species never before considered by CITES, the CITES listing is no longer relevant for that specific material. What began as a forensic challenge in species identification has now become a valuable doorway to discovering new species within the precious coral trade.

In the 13th century, Marco Polo famously spoke of coral in Tibet saying “coral is in great demand in this country and fetches a high price, for they delight to hang it round the necks of their women and of their idols.”

As demand for high-quality precious coral material continues to increase, the regulation of the trade (e.g., through CITES) will remain important, as will ongoing efforts for marine conservation in producing regions such as the Mediterranean, Japan, Taiwan, and China. Education for consumers, alongside continued research into coral species, colors, treatments, and sources, is equally vital.

The cultural and historic importance of precious corals through the ages is evident, and through these continuous scientific advancements, the ability to trace and document these magnificent treasures of Nature provides greater transparency for the coral trade and ensures their important place in the world of jewelry.

Acknowledgements

We highly recommend Basilio Liverino’s book Red Coral─Jewel of the Sea to readers interested in learning more about the diverse history and world of precious corals. And we are grateful to Enzo Liverino and other members of the CIBJO Coral Commission for sharing their expertise with us.

References

• CIBJO, 2024. Coral Blue Book, 39 pp. https://cibjo.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/November-2024-Coral-Blue-Book.pdf
• Galopim de Carvalho, R., 2018., Precious corals, InColor, Vol. 38, pp. 70-78
  Lendvay, B., Cartier, L.E., Gysi, M., Meyer, J.B., Krzemnicki, M.S., Kratzer, A. and Morf, N.V., 2020. DNA fingerprinting: an effective tool for taxonomic identification of precious corals in jewelry. Scientific Reports, 10(1), p.8287.
• Lendvay, B., Cartier, L.E., Costantini, F., Iwasaki, N., Everett, M.V., Krzemnicki, M.S., Kratzer, A. and Morf, N.V., 2022. Coral-ID: A forensically validated genetic test to identify precious coral material and its application to objects seized from illegal traffic. Forensic Science International: Genetics, 58, p.102663.
• Lendvay, B., Morf, N.V., Cartier, L.E., Krzemnicki, M.S. and Nonaka, M., 2025. Trace DNA from a century-old holotype specimen resolves taxonomic uncertainties: the case of the Hawaiian pink precious coral (Pleurocorallium secundum), a CITES-listed species used in jewelry. Coral Reefs, 44, pp. 1211–1225.
• Lendvay, B., Cartier, L.E., Sato, A., Krzemnicki, M.S., Nonaka, M., Yasuda, N., Takata, K., Hayashibara, T., Morf, N.V., Iwasaki, N., 2025. Genetic testing of a high-end ‘Angel skin’ precious coral necklace identifies a species new to the precious coral trade and potentially new to science. Diversity, 17(6), p.395.
• Lendvay, B., Cartier, L.E., Sato, A., Krzemnicki, M.S., Morf, N.V., 2025. Species identification of coral jewellery by genetic testing: case studies, experiences and prospects. Journal of Gemmology, 39(7), pp.688-696.
• Liverino, B., 1989. Red Coral─Jewel of the Sea. Bologna, Italy. ◊

The post Precious corals and genomic transparency appeared first on Incolor Magazine.

With the samples collected in Guatemala, we were able to develop highly accurate testing procedures and a database to distinguish Burmese jadeite ─ a very important distinction in China for price point. In Kazakhstan, we were able to understand firsthand the potential volume of the deposit and the market for the material.

At Fei Cui markets in China and Myanmar as well as during our mining area field expeditions, we were able to achieve a deep understanding of the supply chain from sources to China and in China; thus, providing a detailed view into this dynamic market so closely tied to the Chinese market and culture.

Mandalay Jade Market and the Live-Streaming Phenomena

During Christmas 2024 and New Year 2025, Guild Field Gemology started the year out with a field expedition to Myanmar to study the market and collect samples. A major part of the expedition was to research the Fei Cui market in Mandalay. While the field gemologists had visited this market on numerous earlier occasions, the changes post-Covid were revolutionary.

Our trip started with the Jade Pagoda which we were lucky enough to see before the tragic earthquake destruction. The Pagoda is covered in over 11,000 tons of jade of all colors, textures, and qualities. Over 75 feet high, it was constructed between 2012 and 2015. The individual who had the determination, vision, and passion to create this pagoda had been buying and stockpiling the jade for this magnificent structure for over 25 years.

Next, we visited Fei Cui cutting facilities. These were like what we have been seeing for years ─ many small cutting shops in homes converted into cottage industry cutting shops, with basic cutting, sawing, forming, and polishing equipment; not near the sophistication seen at Fei Cui manufacturing locations in China.

Always exciting is the sawing open of boulders and grinding windows into the boulders. This is the great gamble where money is suddenly made or lost, even for the most experienced Fei Cui buyers. We witnessed all styles of cuts, including bangle bracelets, rings, saddle rings, cabochons, beads, drops, pendants, carvings, etc.

One of my favorite aspects is to watch Fei Cui cutting experts decide how many bangle bracelets to cut from a sawn boulder and how to place them for the most efficient use of color zoning in order to maximize value.

Besides the home-converted cutting shops, there are also cutting facilities and free-standing cutters right inside the Mandalay Jade Market, where a tiny fee will get you through the chain link fence and into the most exciting Fei Cui market in the world. There, the cutting was like that of the outside cutting shops ─ same equipment and cutting techniques, and processes.

We watched the critical decisions of sawing and where to place the cuts. Some of the cutting apparatuses in the Jade Market were the very traditional foot-powered wheels, allowing for total human control.

We started our Jade Market research at the early morning rough market just outside the gated market before sunrise. Rough buyers prefer to examine rough almost in the dark with a few overhead lights and a torch that they will continually tap on the boulder or sawn piece of Fei Cui to get an idea of quality.

It was quite amazing to see this highly complicated determination performed almost in the dark. What was even more amazing was to see rough buyers in the dark examine the rough with their flashlights and then live-stream the images back to China using their cell phone where their customers would make their buying and pricing decisions based on what they saw on their cell phone screens. We were totally amazed.

The most amazing aspect of our Mandalay Fei Cui research was yet to come. After sunrise, we entered the gated market and saw what I would consider now the most intense gem market in the world.

While I have been to this market in the past, it was now nothing like before. Packed shoulder to shoulder like canned sardines, Burmese dealers interacted with an endless sea of Chinese live-streamers selling Fei Cui back to China with their cell phones. Some Chinese live-streamers were selling rough and other finished Fei Cui in a variety of styles, sizes, colors, and qualities. Some sold wholesale to Chinese dealers in China and while others went direct to Chinese consumers. The dealing, negotiation, and selling over live-streaming was some of the most exciting and intense trading I have ever seen. Groups of Burmese dealers would surround each Chinese live-streamer and push their Fei Cui to them, immediately engaging in fast and furious negotiation. The Chinese live-streamer would show it to their customers by phone and the intense three-way negotiating would get underway.

This form of Chinese live-streaming from the source goes on in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Pakistan, Vietnam, Indonesia, Zambia, and other source countries but I have not seen the scale and intensity as that in the Mandalay Jade Market. While the terrible earthquake interrupted the market, the Chinese live-streaming phenomena is already coming back to Mandalay.

Guatemala ─ Mines and Production

Right after the 2025 Tucson Gem Show, Guild Field Gemology traveled to Guatemala to research Fei Cui mining and collect A-Type samples for country-of-origin determination. Guatemala has become an important source of Fei Cui for China and the international market.

The price difference for Burmese and Guatemalan Fei Cui of the same size and quality can be extreme, so country-of-origin determination is critical for the market. Also, very little accurate information has been available for Guatemalan mining and production. So, following our motto at Guild “If you don’t go, you don’t know,” Guatemala was a source of high importance to Guild Field Gemology for the laboratory and education.

Only the Ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica tie a gem into their culture as the Chinese have done for Fei Cui and, interestingly, it is the same gem. The Olmecs were aware of and priced Fei Cu,i followed by the Mayans. The Mesoamerican civilizations had cultural, ceremonial, religious, spiritual, and afterlife connection with Fei Cui. Believed to aid fertility in agriculture and people, ceremonial connections, symbols of wealth and power, and a bridge to the afterlife, the Great civilizations of Mesoamerica prized Fei Cui as one of the most valuable materials. As we have lectured throughout China about our Fei Cui field expeditions, this has been one of the most fascinating aspects for the audiences.

We stopped in Antigua, Guatemala to see the tourist market for Guatemalan Fei Cui. Many of the items being sold were local reproductions of Olmec, Mayan, and Aztec Fei Cui objects from Antiquity, along with contemporary jewelry. These stores were very popular with tourists, especially Americans and Europeans from cruise ships, which would come in groups.

The mining area in northeastern Guatemala near Morales and Zacapa (exact locations under confidentiality agreement) consisted of several small-scale to medium-scale operations primarily open-cast mining. Some of these mines are on hills above the river where alluvial Fei Cui has been found. The open-pit mining has been going deeper with some mines over the last few years digging from five meters to now over thirty meters deep. The deposits are in-situ, and the operations are mechanized. Once excavators and trucks remove material and expose in-situ Fei Cui, the material is cut out of the host rock.

At one miner’s home in Morales, we examined ten tons of freshly mined Fei Cui in a variety of colors including the well-known Olmec blue, the predominate color of Guatemalan Fei Cui, as well as black, green, and a small percentage of vivid Imperial green color with an Icy Texture.

Near Zacapa, we visited a large licensed mining area with black Fei Cui, blue Fei Cui, and green Fei Cui in-situ productions. Some of the boulders produced were very large. Eddie, the mine owner, had self-taught himself the formation gemology to an amazing degree and showed us the serpentine and other rock associations at his mine.

Eddie was also able to provide accurate export figures by quantity and color for Guatemalan Fei Cui. Much of the material went to China for manufacturing and is exported in shipping containers.

Exports by weight in tons

In 2020 ─ 400 tons; in 2021 ─ 700 tons; in 2022 ─ 1,800 tons; in 2023 ─ 2,500 tons; and in 2024 ─ 2,800 tons.

Exports by color

Blue 70%; Black 25%; Green 5%; Imperial Green, less than 5% of Green; Purple 0.1%.

Also, near Zacapa, we searched the riverbanks for alluvial river jade with the so-called bloodhound ─ a man famous in Guatemala mining for finding Fei Cui.

While there, we learned from Eddie to use a rock hammer to tap and listen to the rocks to find Fei Cui along the river. A small number of Chinese buyers, concentrated in Morales, buy Guatemalan Fei Cui for export to China. While tourists also buy locally manufactured jewelry and objects, especially in Antigua, there is also a growing domestic consumption of Guatemalan Fei Cui in lower price point material, even treated B+C Fei Cui.

The expedition to Guatemala enabled us to get an accurate account of Fei Cui mining and production and kilos of A-Type samples for our laboratory research and education.

Kazakhstan ─ The Mine and the Products

Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country in the world and the largest landlocked country. It is roughly the size of Western Europe but with only a population of approximately 19.5 million people. Kazakhstan translates into land of wanderers. Kazakh comes from the ancient Turkic word qaz meaning to wander. The name Cossack (warrior group of free farmer-horsemen evolving around 3,000 years ago) has the same origin.

The country is part of the Eurasian Steppe, which is the largest grassland in the world and extends from Hungary to China, almost one-fifth the way around the world. Due to this large extent of flatlands, the use of horses for battle may have been developed by the nomadic people there. The historic Silk Road passes through Kazakhstan. Ninety-nine elements on the Periodic Table are found in the country. It is the world’s largest uranium producer and significant producer of oil, natural gas, coal, copper, and gold.

Our expedition to the Fei Cui mine in Kazakhstan during summer 2025 began with a flight from China to Almaty (largest population city in Kazakhstan), as we watched stunning snowcapped mountains below when crossing the border. The Fei Cui mine is about six to eight hours drive from Almaty near the large Lake Balkhash, one of the largest lakes in Asia. It is half saline and half freshwater. The Steppes live up to their reputation, as we saw nothing but grassland the entire drive.

The Fei Cui mine was discovered by the Soviet Union in the 1950s and had been previously mined by the Russians and then a private company. Today, a new company (Jade Vault is one of the corporations involved) is taking over where others left off. They are coming into a mine fully ready to be exploited. The mine itself is a large open-pit operation.

The climate at the mining area has extreme fluctuations of temperatures in summer and winter ranging from plus 50○C to minus 40○C.

The Soviets cut the open-cast mine to follow the Fei Cui deposit. What is extremely fascinating is the two massive monoliths (large single rocks) that rise dramatically from the open pit. The monoliths are part of the Fei Cui ore body that runs the length of the pit. The water in the pit is groundwater that is above part of the Fei Cui ore body.

The mining plan is to start mining the two monoliths down to the ore body and then continue to mine the ore body. They will have to create benches to hold back the groundwater once they start to mine the ore body after they mine out the monoliths.

To mine the monoliths, they will use hydraulic hammers and possibly rock spreaders to break the rock apart, followed by diamond-bit saw wires to remove the Fei Cui sections. The monoliths have a very dry appearance on the outside and numerous cracks running through the material. The owners are hoping higher quality material may exist inside the monoliths.

While we were there, they were not mining but focused on the obvious first step. When you are at the mine site, you can almost look in any direction and literally see thousands of tons of Fei Cui boulders that have already been mined and are just sitting there.

They had just shipped 300 tons of boulders to China for evaluation and manufacturing into finished products and planned to ship another 1,000 tons the next month. At the time of our visit, they were grading the boulders with the renowned Chinese Fei Cui expert, Professor Wong Leesheng, who was part of our expedition.

The material was predominately commercial quality with the majority intended for ornamental use and some percentage for commercial quality jewelry, especially bangle bracelets.

Most of the boulders were a light gray color with green areas of color zoning that ranged from light to dark green. Some material was predominately green color, and we saw some intense green, but we did not find vivid Imperial Green.

Core samples from the monoliths revealed gray and various tones of green color-zoned material that had a coarse grain structure, with some having a tighter grain structure suitable for commercial jewelry. It is reported that the Russians removed some vivid green better-quality material.

The owners are hoping to produce significant amounts of attractive light gray with green color zoning to predominately green material for commercial quality jewelry, although this quality will not be the majority of production. Pendants, rings, beads, and carvings will all be produced with perhaps bangles making up most of the jewelry product.

Much of the production is planned for ornamental carvings, traditional style Chinese bowels, vases, chopsticks etc., plus luxury household items such as tile, tabletops, doorknobs, and more for Chinese and Western markets.

We brought back kilos of A-Type research samples and will be studying them for country-of-origin determination as well as watching the production of product from the material shipped to Guangzhou.

Kunming Fei Cui, Stone, and Gem Show

Author Ruby Liu and I gave a Fei Cui Field Research presentation at the June Kunming Fei Cui, Stone, and Gem Show. This is a great show that focuses on Fei Cui and other stone and aggregate materials, as well as a variety of art, wood, ceramic, furniture, and even tea.

Kunming is a wonderful city in China’s Yunnan Province and has a reputation as Eternal Spring. They have many ethnic groups with a variety of colorful clothing, great music and dancing, and an incredible variety of cuisine, as well as fun local customs. The people here seem to really enjoy life and are very happy.

The show had quantities of fine quality Fei Cui in Imperial Green, Intense Green, Vivid Lavender, beautiful color zoning and Icy Texture and nephrite in beautiful white as well as color zoned. There were also magnificent large carvings representing classical Chinese scenes and cultural symbolism.

A variety of material was at the show. African Fei Cui is an aggregate quartz material first reported to be from China and later revealed to be most likely from South Africa. It is attractive and near colorless with green zoning semi-transparent material. At a very low price point, it is taking the Chinese market by storm.

Landscape agate in fine quality texture and artistic scenes is held to be very valuable in the Chinese market. I especially enjoyed the natural gem paintings. These are from material like marble where slices are taken from large material and when the slice is orientated correctly a magnificent scene may appear like a goddess ascending to the heavens or even a dragon.

Ruili ─ The Chinese/Myanmar Border Connection

Ruili is a vital part of the Fei Cui supply chain to China as it is positioned right at the Myanmar border. It is a manufacturing and trading center with Burmese Fei Cui coming across the border. Our first stop was at the border where there were numerous Fei Cui dealers selling rough.

I discussed one boulder with a dealer who had bangle bracelet outlines drawn on the boulder and his opinion of the yield of bangle bracelets from the boulder. If you buy the boulder, he could offer cutting services. This was a common business model at the border.

Next, we visited a large manufacturing and trading center where there was a plentiful supply of Burmese rough jadeite ─ mainly sawn boulders with bangle outlines and saddle ring outlines drawn on them, expertly utilizing the shape and yield while incorporating the color zoning for maximum value. Some bangles included three colors such as white, green, and lavender. Others used two colors and gave great consideration as to how to incorporate the green zoning.

Among all the amazing rough jadeite was one piece that was incredible, a once-in-a-lifetime find. A small boulder that had a window polished in it to reveal magnificent very highly vivid Imperial Green color with a high Icy Texture, just glowing vivid green.

Also, Ruili had finished Fei Cui stores with fine color inventory. There was even a night rough market that had a small number of dealers and amount of inventory with a few live-streamers while we were there.

We were told that the industry moved to Mandalay. After the earthquake, the rough dealers and live-streamers returned to Ruili but at the time of our visit in June they had already gone back to Mandalay.

While in Ruili, we visited the Wanding Border Culture Park Museum and were given a tour by Mr. Yang Zixiang the founder of the museum and a legendary figure in the Chinese Fei Cui industry.

The museum was quite amazing with a large part dedicated to the WWII efforts at the Chinese border with Burma and in Burma, including the lifeline supply chain to Burma.

Many war-related historical items were on display including restored original U.S. military Willy’s Jeeps that Mr. Zixiang and I shared a passion for. [As a teenager I had a rebuilt and customized Willy’s Jeep that I spent many hours driving through the Arizona desert and mountains]

As we went through the gemstone section I noticed a gem painting from Myanmar depicting the Burmese King and a French dignitary as the King showed him the legendary Nga Mauk ruby and asked him the price. As I talked about the story, Mr. Zixiang was thrilled that someone else knew the story and could talk with him about it.

After returning to my office in Shenzhen, to my great surprise, the gem painting was waiting for me! Mr. Zixiang had bought two paintings in Mogok and sent me one. It is now in one of our classrooms and every ruby and sapphire class hears the story. Another amazing friendship made through Field Gemology.

Fei Cui Gemology: Country of Origin, Grading, Standards, Trade Terms

For several years, we have been documenting and researching Fei Cui samples from around the world as well as working with the industry for color and quality grading standards and terminology. This has led to country-of-origin determinations as well as grading, standards, and terminology.

Our LA-ICP-MS study of A-Type samples has proven invaluable for conclusive country-of-origin Fei Cui identification as well as inclusion studies. Guild will continue to build a massive database for Fei Cui identification as well as precise standards for color grading and quality grading.

Summary

The only jewelry category larger than Fei Cui in China is gold. Fei Cui is a larger market than diamond, pearl, or colored gemstones. It is a jewelry category that transcends the material and ties directly into culture; a material that is of great mystery to the West in terms of understanding the cultural connection and how to look at, appreciate, and evaluate it; a material that has perhaps no equal in terms of gem and culture ─ not just for the Chinese but for the ancient Olmec and Mayan civilizations of Mesoamerica.

As opaque to the West as the material, is the market and supply chain. Indeed, even in China the current sources, supply chain, and market are evolving. The importance of Guatemala as a country of origin and the supply from Myanmar are changing dynamics, as is the great fascination for the role of Chinese live-streamers, both in Myanmar and in China.

Even the successful promotion outside of China by Gemporia for Guatemalan jade (manufactured into products in Guangdong Province, China) to be sold in Europe is an important trend to follow.

The post Fei Cui Global Supply Chain Research – Update appeared first on Incolor Magazine.

The study of solid inclusions (Figure 1) remains one of the most relevant sources of information for determining the geographic origin of gemstones. The minerals trapped or absent as inclusions within emerald crystals directly reflect the local geology and host rock characteristics of the specific deposits where they formed, varying distinctly from one location to another.
Through micro-Raman analysis of a large reference collection of emeralds, combined with an exhaustive review of the scientific literature on mineral inclusions in this gemstone, we were able to identify significant markers that support the reliable attribution of geographic origin.

Materials and Methods

All photomicrographs were acquired using a VHX 7000 digital microscope at the Bellerophon Gemlab laboratory in Bangkok, with magnifications ranging from ×30 to ×2500.
The 1628 samples were acquired either directly at the mine, or from the miner close to the mines, or in the market from trusted contacts (Table 1). Weighing between 0.17 and 43.61 carats, they included polished wafers (with two windows), rough stones, and faceted gems. UV-Vis-NIR spectra were also collected at Bellerophon Gemlab using an Ocean Insight SR-4XR250-50 spectrometer with 500 lines blazed at 250 nm, a 50 μm slit, and coupled with a 10-watt halogen and 1.2-watt xenon light source.
Raman spectra were obtained at Bellerophon Gemlab using a BWT-8400000340 i-Raman Plus 532S. For internal inclusion analysis, the system was operated in confocal mode with 20X and 50X objectives using 532-nm highly coherent lasers.

Low Iron Type and High Iron Type

Emeralds can be classified into two distinct groups: low iron type and high iron type, based on the relative presence of the Fe²⁺ absorption band at 825 nm observed in their respective UV-Vis-NIR spectra (Figure 2).
This spectral distinction, combined with the presence of specific solid inclusions, makes it possible to highlight certain geographic origins. Indeed, some inclusions are found in only one low iron deposit but may also occur in one or more high iron deposits.
Low iron deposits notably include Colombia (Muzo and Chivor), Zambia (Musakashi), and Afghanistan (Panjshir). In contrast, high iron deposits comprise a broader range of sources, including Australia (Torrington, Emmaville/Torrington, Poona), India (Jharkhand, Rajasthan), Brazil (Minas Gerais, Bahia, Goias), China (Davdar, Malipo), Ethiopia (Shakiso), Madagascar (Mananjary, Ianapera), Nigeria (Jos Plateau), Norway, Pakistan (Chitral and Swat), Russia (Malysheva), South Africa, Tanzania (Lake Manyara), Zambia (Kafubu), and Zimbabwe (Sandawana).

Classification and Distribution by Strunz Class

A total of 114 different inclusions were analyzed in emeralds from a wide range of geographic sources worldwide. An initial classification of these minerals was carried out according to the Strunz system (Table 2), which groups mineral species into ten major categories based on their chemical composition and the nature of their anionic groups.
Among the inclusions identified, silicates represent the most diverse class, with 51 different mineral species observed in emeralds, followed by oxides, sulfides, and carbonates.
In contrast, halides, borates, and native elements are the least represented classes, with only 3 and 2 minerals recorded in each of these categories.

Mineral Inclusions with Low or High Indicative Value for Geographic Origin

The most frequently observed solid inclusions in emeralds are quartz, followed by calcite and apatite. Table 3 presents the ten most common inclusions found in the samples analyzed.
Although their presence is not relevant for determining geographic origin, these inclusions have, to date, never been identified in synthetic emeralds, making them useful indicators for distinguishing natural from synthetic gems.
Conversely, a list of 34 minerals has been established as occurring in only a single geographic origin. These inclusions therefore serve as particularly reliable markers for origin determination (Table 4).

Determination of Emerald Geographic Origin Through Solid Inclusion Analysis and UV-Vis-NIR Spectroscopy

The differentiation between low and high iron types makes certain solid inclusions particularly useful for identifying the geographic origin of emeralds (Figure 3). For instance, baryte (BaSO₄), a barium sulfate, is found in emeralds from Colombia, Madagascar, Russia, South Africa, and Zambia (Kafubu).
Among these, only Colombia is classified as low iron, making baryte, when associated with a low iron UV-Vis-NIR spectrum, a strong indicator of Colombian origin. Similarly, galena, a lead sulfide, observed in both Colombia and South Africa, helps support origin determination through iron-type comparison.
The Davdar deposit in China exhibits fluid inclusions similar to those found in Colombian emeralds, along with a low iron UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum (Saeseaw et al., 2014). However, hematite (an iron oxide) and scheelite have only been identified at Davdar or in high iron localities (Schwarz and Curti, 2020). In Afghanistan, emeralds, also of the low iron type, are distinguished by the presence of rutile (a titanium oxide) and tremolite (an amphibole), two minerals otherwise found only in high-iron sources, thus reinforcing their diagnostic value.

Conclusion

The results confirm the value of combining solid inclusion identification with UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy for determining the origin of emeralds. Analysis across a wide geographic range led to the identification of 34 minerals found to be related to only one deposit, making them strong indicators of geographic origin. In contrast, minerals such as quartz, calcite, or apatite, although frequently observed, have low discriminative value due to their widespread presence across numerous deposits.

Limitations

Geographic origin determination of emeralds relies heavily on identifying inclusions, which reflect the local geology and host rock characteristics of specific deposits. However, this must be combined with trace element analysis and spectroscopic properties, since relying solely on one criterion poses significant risks of misidentification.

Further Research

Not all inclusions are identical, even when found across multiple deposits. Variations in their size, shape, and edges may provide additional criteria for distinguishing emeralds by prove-nance. Quantification of solid inclusions in these emeralds is currently under investigation.

The post Determination of Emerald Origin Through the Identification of Solid Inclusions appeared first on Incolor Magazine.

Dating back to the time of the dinosaurs, the best known amber is from the Cretaceous period and is found in Myanmar. Prized in Asia, this amber is about 99 million years old. The slightly older Lebanese amber (130 million years old) is famous for its interesting inclusions. Much younger varieties, such as Dominican and Mexican ambers from Chiapas (15-20 million years old), are also popular on the market. However, in the Western world at least, the most famous and longest used amber is Baltic amber from Central Europe.

Baltic amber (succinite) is a resin of coniferous trees from the Eocene epoch, and its deposits have been dated at 38-48 million years. Early humans pointed to the Baltic Sea as the source of this material. Today, it is found in deposits in many other places in central and eastern Europe, from eastern Germany, the Baltic coast with the largest open pit mine on the Sambian Peninsula (Russia), eastern Poland (Lublin area) and western Ukraine. Ice ages caused the movement of large land masses and erosion, which is why amber is found today in secondary deposits in many places in Poland and Europe.

Gdansk, however, is recognized as the amber capital of the world. Situated on the Baltic Sea, it is a city with unique links to this stone. The history of Gdansk and amber date back to prehistoric times, when the stone was collected and used by local communities.

More than 2,000 remains of ancient amber processing workshops have been found around the city. The oldest finds from this period date back more than 6,000 years.

Amber was then exported to the Mediterranean and Asia Minor, where today archaeologists find it in excavations, confirming the global trade in ancient times. The finest masterpieces from 1600-1700 were created in Gdansk and sold throughout Europe.

In contemporary Gdansk, there are many companies and independent designers in the jewelry industry (Poland ranks third in Europe in the production of silver jewelry) who place an emphasis on amber.

Finding Amber

Fishing for amber on the beaches of the Baltic Sea is a fascinating and popular activity, especially in Poland and Lithuania, where the Baltic Sea is a rich source of this precious stone. It used to be the main way of harvesting the raw material.

Fishing is most effective in winter and early spring, when storms are more frequent and cold sea water has the greatest density, making it easier for light lumps of amber to move around. Significant amounts of amber rest in deposits beneath the seabed and, when they are washed out by sea currents, they are discarded on the beach along with a mixture of seaweed, sticks and marine debris.

UV torches can be helpful at night because amber shows fluorescence under ultraviolet light, making it easier to find. In Poland, the best beaches for prospecting are in Pomerania, as well as others near Gdansk. Similar methods have been used for centuries by the inhabitants of the entire southern coast of the Baltic Sea and the eastern (particularly Danish) part of the North Sea.

The Polish city of Gdansk, situated on the Baltic Sea, is recognized as the amber capital of the world.

Mining amber from secondary Holocene deposits is an important way of extracting this valuable raw material. The method of leaching it directly from the ground using pressurized water was invented. Released from the sediments of former fossil beaches, amber rises to the surface with a mixture of water and sand, where it is scooped up by miners. The hydraulic method requires the removal of the soil layer, due to the need to protect the environment and rehabilitate the area after mining. And, in the case of amber, environmentally responsible mining is promoted and desired by clients.

The Museums

The museums in Gdansk not only provide wonderful samples of amber, but also conduct important scientific research along with other institutions. A very unique museum on a global scale is the Museum of Amber Inclusions, operating at the Faculty of Biology of the University of Gdansk. The permanent exhibition Life in an Amber Forest features particularly beautiful arthropods that are perfectly preserved in fossilized resin. The museum’s main attraction is a diorama, a three-dimensional model of an amber forest on a 1:1 scale. The museum staff also runs a workshop where they scientifically process and polish the amber that contains animals inclusions.

The second most important museum is the Gdansk Amber Museum, located in a medieval mill erected by the Teutonic Knights around 1350, which is one of the largest historical buildings in Gdansk. Visitors learn about the process of amber formation and can see nearly 300 varieties of resin of various ages and colors, from all over the world. The museum primarily presents historical objects created in Gdansk hundreds of years ago as well as contemporary designs of amber jewelry, which differ significantly from stereotypical beads.

Treatments and Testing

Like any gemstone, amber is also subjected to various types of treatments and enhancements. The fun fact is that the first reports of modifying Baltic amber date back 2000 years to the Roman author, Pliny the Elder. At that time, people discovered that the transparency and color of amber could be improved by boiling it in fat. And, today’s methods have remained similar, although modern equipment is used to obtain more predictable results. Other processes are now also used to alter the appearance and durability of amber.

Testing methods of amber have also been modernized. Destructive techniques such as the hot needle test are no longer employed in laboratories. Instead, typical gemological testing methods are used, among them are magnification, visible and UV light and infrared spectrophotometry (FTIR), which is crucial for identification. It is also important to build up a collection of raw material reference samples from different locations, as well as analyses of market available modifications.

Amber Art and Jewelry

A fascinating material with a rich history, amber continues to inspire artists and designers. Its unique properties, including its softness, aroma, and the animal/insect inclusions it often contains, have made it a prized and easy to work with gemstone for thousands of years.

From ancient inspiration to modern art, Gdansk is today a center of amber design. The city is famous for the Amberif Fair, held twice a year, where the latest jewelry and amber art collections are presented.

This event attracts designers and companies from all over the world, showing how versatile amber is as a material.

Gdansk designers combine tradition with modernity to create innovative designs. They use the natural forms of this organic gem as a starting point for their creations, while experimenting with new techniques and styles. Thanks to the lightness of amber, artists can create both monumental objects and delicate, filigree ornaments.

In the hands of contemporary artists, amber is given new life. From traditional jewelry to avantgarde art installations, this ancient material continues to delight and surprise.

Gdansk artists prove that, despite its long history, amber remains a material with unlimited possibilities in the world of modern art and jewelry design.

The post The Gold of The North . A View from Gdansk, Poland appeared first on Incolor Magazine.